Moses -- "Moses" is from the Greek spelling of the name for the author of the first five books of the OT.

permitted - (CW) "Permitted" is from a verb which means to "turn to," "turn over to," "rely upon," "leave to;" "give "give way," and "command." When used with an indirect objects, as it is here, it means "rely upon" or "leave to." With a dative and an infinite, it has the specific sense of "entrust" or "leaving to one's judgment" to do something.

you  -- The Greek pronoun "you" here is plural and in the form of an indirect object, "to you," "for you," etc. 

to -- This "to" is added because the infinitive form of the verb requires a "to" in English.

divorce -- "Divorce" is from a verb that means "to loose from," "to set free," and ""to discharge." Often it is used to mean "destroy," "to leave," and "to free." In references to a wife, it specifically means "to divorce." It also means "to destroy." Interestingly, it is the same word used to describe freeing someone from a debt (as in the last chapter).

your -- The word translated as "your" is a plural, second-person pronoun in the genitive case. This pronoun follows the noun so "of yours."

missing "the"  -- (MW) The untranslated word is the Greek definite article, which usually precedes a noun and, without a noun, takes the meaning of "the one." The Greek article is much closer to our demonstrative pronouns ("this," "that," "these," "those"). See this article for more. 

wives:  - "Wives" is from a noun which means "woman (as opposed to man)," "wife," "spouse," "mortal woman (as opposed to a goddess)," and "female mate (among animals)."

because  -  The word translated as "because " means "towards," "in the presence of," "by reason of (for)," and "against." This is not the one of the common word translated as "because" but "by reason of" means the same thing.

your  -- The word translated as "your" is a plural, second-person pronoun in the genitive case. This pronoun follows the noun so "of yours."

missing "the"  -- (MW) The untranslated word is the Greek definite article, which usually precedes a noun and, without a noun, takes the meaning of "the one." The Greek article is much closer to our demonstrative pronouns ("this," "that," "these," "those"). See this article for more. 

hearts - (CW) "Hearts were hard" is from a constructed word that means literally "hardheartedness." It appears only here and in the parallel verse in Mar 10:5. This word means simple "hardheartedness" and  not translating it that was is confusing.

were -- (IW) There is nothing that can be translated as "were" in the Greek source.

hard. - This completes the idea of the noun above.

But -- The Greek word translated as "but" means "but," "however," and "on the other hand." It joins phrases in an adversarial way. Since it always falls in the second position, translating it as "however" often captures its feeling better.  

it -- This is from the third-person, singular form of the verb.

was -- (WW, WT) The word translated as "was" means "to become," that is, to enter into a new state. In Greek, especially as used by Jesus, it is the opposite of "being," which is existence in the current state. When applied to events, this word means "to happen," "to occur," or "take place."

not -- The Greek word translated as "not" is the Greek negative used to deny objective facts, not opinions. It means "no," "not," or"no truly." It makes a negative statement of fact. Adding "really" to the sentence captures the same idea. When a negative precedes the verb, it affects the whole clause.

this way. - (CW) "This way" is from an adverb that means "in this way," "therefore," "so much," "to such an extent," and "that is why."

from  - The word translated as "from" means "from" in both location and when referring to a source.

the - There is no article, "the" here, but the English words "beginning" and "start" require it,

beginning  - "Beginning" is from a noun that means "beginning," "origin," "foundation," "source," "first place," "power," and "first principles."